Overview

  • Founded Date december 25, 2007
  • Sectors Restaurant
  • Posted Jobs 0
  • Viewed 7

Company Description

Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2025), p

Infotech (IT) is a set of associated fields that include computer systems, software application, shows languages, data and details processing, and storage. [1] IT forms part of info and communications innovation (ICT). [2] An infotech system (IT system) is generally a details system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system – consisting of all hardware, software application, and peripheral devices – operated by a restricted group of IT users, and an IT task usually refers to the commissioning and execution of an IT system. [3] IT systems play an essential function in assisting in efficient data management, boosting communication networks, and supporting organizational procedures across various markets. Successful IT projects need precise preparation and continuous maintenance to guarantee optimum performance and alignment with organizational goals. [4]

Although human beings have actually been keeping, recovering, manipulating, evaluating and communicating info considering that the earliest writing systems were developed, [5] the term information innovation in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that ”the brand-new innovation does not yet have a single recognized name. We will call it infotech (IT).” [6] Their meaning includes 3 classifications: techniques for processing, the application of analytical and mathematical techniques to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer system programs. [6]

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer system networks, however it likewise includes other details circulation technologies such as television and telephones. Several services or products within an economy are connected with infotech, including hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, web, telecom devices, and e-commerce. [7] [a]

Based upon the storage and processing technologies utilized, it is possible to distinguish four distinct stages of IT advancement: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present). [5]

Infotech is a branch of computer system science, specified as the study of procedures, structures, and the processing of various types of data. As this field continues to evolve globally, its priority and significance have grown, leading to the introduction of computer system science-related courses in K-12 education.

Ideas of computer system science were very first discussed before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had gone over and began thinking of computer system circuits and mathematical estimations. As time went on, the field of infotech and computer system science ended up being more complex and was able to manage the processing of more information. Scholarly short articles began to be released from various companies. [9]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered a few of the significant pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Providing such credit for their developments, the majority of their efforts were focused on developing the very first digital computer. Along with that, subjects such as expert system started to be brought up as Turing was starting to question such innovation of the time duration. [10]

Devices have been utilized to help calculation for countless years, probably initially in the type of a tally stick. [11] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the very first century BC, is typically thought about the earliest recognized mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known tailored system. [12] Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator efficient in carrying out the four fundamental arithmetical operations was developed. [13]

Electronic computer systems, utilizing either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, finished in 1941, was the world’s very first programmable computer, and by modern standards among the first machines that could be thought about a complete computing machine. During the Second World War, Colossus established the very first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to carry out just a single job. It also did not have the ability to keep its program in memory; shows was brought out utilizing plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. [14] The very first recognizably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. [15]

The advancement of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories permitted a new generation of computers to be developed with greatly lowered power consumption. The very first commercially available stored-program computer system, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power intake of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer established at the University of Manchester and functional by November 1953, taken in just 150 watts in its final version. [16]

Several other advancements in semiconductor technology consist of the incorporated circuit (IC) created by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface area passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, [17] the very first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957, [18] the MOSFET demonstration by a Bell Labs team. [19] [20] [21] [22] the planar procedure by Jean Hoerni in 1959, [23] [24] [25] and the microprocessor created by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These crucial innovations led to the advancement of the desktop computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the introduction of details and interactions innovation (ICT). [26]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term infotech had actually been redefined as ”The advancement of cable was made possible by the merging of telecommunications and calculating technology (… typically understood in Britain as infotech).” We then begin to see the look of the term in 1990 included within documents for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). [27]

Innovations in innovation have actually currently reinvented the world by the twenty-first century as people were able to access different online services. This has actually changed the workforce considerably as thirty percent of U.S. employees were currently in professions in this profession. 136.9 million individuals were personally connected to the Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million families. [28] Along with the Internet, new kinds of technology were also being presented around the world, which has actually enhanced performance and made things simpler around the world.

Along with technology transforming society, millions of processes could be done in seconds. Innovations in interaction were likewise vital as individuals started to count on the computer to communicate through telephone lines and cable. The intro of the e-mail was considered advanced as ”business in one part of the world could communicate by e-mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world …” [29]

Not just personally, computers and technology have actually likewise revolutionized the marketing industry, leading to more buyers of their products. In 2002, Americans surpassed $28 billion in items simply online alone while e-commerce a years later on led to $289 billion in sales. [29] And as computer systems are rapidly becoming more advanced by the day, they are becoming more used as people are becoming more dependent on them during the twenty-first century.

Data processing

Storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus utilized punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, an innovation now outdated. [30] Electronic information storage, which is used in modern computer systems, dates from The second world war, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to get rid of the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line. [31] The very first random-access digital storage gadget was the Williams tube, which was based upon a basic cathode ray tube. [32] However, the details kept in it and delay-line memory was unpredictable in the truth that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost as soon as power was gotten rid of. The earliest kind of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932 [33] and utilized in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s very first commercially readily available general-purpose electronic computer system. [34]

IBM presented the first tough disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. [35]:6 Most digital information today is still kept magnetically on difficult disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. [36]:4 -5 Until 2002 most information was saved on analog gadgets, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the very first time. Since 2007 [upgrade], nearly 94% of the data saved worldwide was held digitally: [37] 52% on hard drives, 28% on optical gadgets, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the around the world capability to keep info on electronic gadgets grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, [38] doubling roughly every 3 years. [39]

Databases

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to attend to the issue of saving and recovering big amounts of data precisely and rapidly. An early such system was IBM’s Information Management System (IMS), [40] which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later. [41] IMS shops data hierarchically, [40] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar ideas of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the very first commercially offered relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle. [42]

All DMS include components, they permit the data they store to be accessed at the same time by numerous users while maintaining its integrity. [43] All databases are typical in one point that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored independently from the data itself, in a database schema. [40]

In the last few years, the extensible markup language (XML) has actually become a popular format for data representation. Although XML information can be saved in typical file systems, it is frequently held in relational databases to take advantage of their ”robust application validated by years of both theoretical and useful effort.” [44] As a development of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML’s text-based structure offers the advantage of being both maker- and human-readable. [45]

Transmission

Data transmission has three elements: transmission, propagation, and reception. [46] It can be broadly classified as broadcasting, in which info is sent unidirectionally downstream, or telecoms, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels. [38]

XML has been increasingly used as a method of data interchange because the early 2000s, [47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, [45] describing ”data-in-transit rather than … data-at-rest”. [47]

Manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential rate of technological modification (a sort of Moore’s law): machines’ application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capability of the world’s general-purpose computer systems doubled every 18 months throughout the very same 20 years; the worldwide telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world’s storage capacity per capita required approximately 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast info has doubled every 12.3 years. [38]

Massive amounts of information are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and provided effectively it essentially resides in what have actually been called data tombs: ”information archives that are seldom gone to”. [48] To attend to that issue, the field of information mining – ”the procedure of discovering fascinating patterns and knowledge from big amounts of data” [49] – emerged in the late 1980s. [50]

Email

The technology and services it attends to sending and getting electronic messages (called ”letters” or ”electronic letters”) over a distributed (consisting of global) computer system network. In terms of the structure of elements and the concept of operation, e-mail almost duplicates the system of regular (paper) mail, obtaining both terms (mail, letter, envelope, accessory, box, shipment, and others) and particular features – ease of use, message transmission delays, adequate dependability and at the same time no guarantee of delivery. The advantages of e-mail are: quickly viewed and kept in mind by an individual addresses of the form user_name@domain_name (for example, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, in addition to approximate files; independence of servers (in the basic case, they deal with each other straight); adequately high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.

Disadvantages of email: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of ensured shipment of a particular letter; possible hold-ups in message delivery (as much as a number of days); limits on the size of one message and on the overall size of messages in the mailbox (individual for users).

Search system

A software application and hardware complex with a web user interface that offers the ability to browse for details on the Internet. An online search engine usually means a website that hosts the user interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of an online search engine is an online search engine (search engine) – a set of programs that offers the performance of an online search engine and is typically a trade trick of the search engine designer company. Most online search engine look for information on Web sites, but there are likewise systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online shops, and details on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is among the top priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web short article about the main problems in the work of online search engine).

Commercial effects

Companies in the information innovation field are often gone over as a group as the ”tech sector” or the ”tech market.” [51] [52] [53] These titles can be misleading at times and need to not be misinterpreted for ”tech companies;” which are typically big scale, for-profit corporations that sell customer technology and software. It is also worth keeping in mind that from a company viewpoint, Infotech departments are a ”expense center” most of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs costs, or ”costs”, within a business rather than producing profits or revenue streams. Modern services rely greatly on technology for their day-to-day operations, so the expenditures entrusted to cover technology that assists in organization in a more efficient way are generally seen as ”simply the cost of operating.” IT departments are allocated funds by senior management and need to try to attain the wanted deliverables while remaining within that spending plan. Government and the economic sector might have various financing systems, however the principles are more-or-less the very same. This is a frequently overlooked factor for the rapid interest in automation and synthetic intelligence, but the constant pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for handling the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their organizations. Companies have likewise sought to integrate IT with company outcomes and decision-making through a BizOps or organization operations department. [54]

In an organization context, the Infotech Association of America has defined infotech as ”the research study, design, advancement, application, application, support, or management of computer-based info systems”. [55] [page needed] The responsibilities of those operating in the field consist of network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization’s technology life cycle, by which hardware and software application are maintained, upgraded, and replaced.

Information services

Information services is a term rather loosely applied to a variety of IT-related services used by commercial business, [56] [57] [58] along with data brokers.

-.
U.S. Employment distribution of computer systems design and associated services, 2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Employment in the computer system systems and design related services industry, in thousands, 1990-2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Occupational growth and salaries in computer systems design and associated services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. predicted percent modification in employment in picked occupations in computer systems style and related services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. predicted average yearly percent change in output and employment in selected markets, 2010-2020 [59]

Ethics

The field of info ethics was developed by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. [60]:9 A few of the ethical concerns related to using infotech consist of: [61]:20 -21

– Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the copyright holders.
– Employers monitoring their employees’ emails and other Internet usage.
Unsolicited emails.
Hackers accessing online databases.
– Website setting up cookies or spyware to keep an eye on a user’s online activities, which may be used by information brokers.

IT jobs

Research suggests that IT jobs in organization and public administration can easily end up being considerable in scale. Work conducted by McKinsey in cooperation with the University of Oxford recommended that half of all massive IT jobs (those with preliminary expense price quotes of $15 million or more) typically failed to keep expenses within their initial spending plans or to complete on time. [62]

Information and interactions innovation (ICT).
IT facilities.
Outline of details innovation.
Knowledge society.

Notes

^ On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: ”In its initial application ’infotech’ was suitable to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the huge field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has actually since been transformed to what claims to be of fantastic use, however without the support of meaning … the term IT does not have substance when used to the name of any function, discipline, or position.” [8] References

Citations

^ Cosker, Glynn (2023 ), ”What Is Infotech? A Beginner’s Guide to the World of IT”, Technology Blog, Rasmussen University.
^ ”Computer Technology Definition”. Law Insider. Retrieved 11 July 2022. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). ”The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems”. International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Technology (IJSECS). 3 (2 ): 151-161. doi:10.35870/ ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Infotech and Systems, University of Arizona, archived from the original on 5 August 2012, retrieved 2 August 2012
^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958 ), ”Management in the 1980s”, Harvard Business Review, 11.
^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), ”Infotech”, A Dictionary of Media and Communication (initially ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, retrieved 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computers and computer networks however more broadly designating any innovation that is used to produce, shop, process, and/or disperse info digitally, including tv and telephone.
^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000 ), p. 869.
^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
^ Henderson, H. (2017 ). computer science. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer system science and technology. (3rd ed.). [Online] New York City: Facts On File.
^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981 ), ”Decipherment of the earliest tablets”, Science, 211 (4479 ): 283-285, Bibcode:1981 Sci … 211..283 S, doi:10.1126/ science.211.4479.283, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 17748027.
^ Wright (2012 ), p. 279.
^ Chaudhuri (2004 ), p. 3.
^ Lavington (1980 ), p. 11.
^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), ”Computing’s Golden Jubilee”, Resurrection (20 ), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 9 January 2012, retrieved 19 April 2008.
^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), ”Some early transistor applications in the UK”, Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3 ): 100-106, doi:10.1049/ esej:19980301 (inactive 7 December 2024), ISSN 0963-7346 citation: CS1 maint: DOI non-active since December 2024 (link).
^ US2802760A, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., ”Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for regulated diffusion”, provided 1957-08-13
^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957 ). ”Surface Protection and Selective Masking throughout Diffusion in Silicon”. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9 ): 547. doi:10.1149/ 1.2428650.
^ KAHNG, D. (1961 ). ”Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device”. Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583-596. doi:10.1142/ 9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960 ). ”The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen”. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131-136. Bibcode:1960 JPCS … 14..131 L. doi:10.1016/ 0022-3697( 60 )90219-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 120 & 321-323. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007 ). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
^ US 3025589 Hoerni, J. A.: ”Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices” filed May 1, 1959
^ ”Advanced info on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000” (PDF). Nobel Prize. June 2018. (PDF) from the initial on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ Information technology. (2003 ). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of computer system science. (4th ed.).
^ Stewart, C.M. (2018 ). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of American studies. [Online] Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ a b Northrup, C.C. (2013 ). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.), Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to today. [Online] London: Routledge.
^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010 ), p. 178.
^ Lavington (1998 ), p. 1.
^ ”Early computers at Manchester University”, Resurrection, 1 (4 ), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 28 August 2017, recovered 19 April 2008.
^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), ”Magnetic drum”, Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, archived from the initial on 21 June 2006, recovered 21 August 2011.
^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the initial on 21 November 2008, obtained 24 January 2009.
^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001 ), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2.
^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999 ), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3.
^ Wu, Suzanne, ”Just How Much Information Is There in the World?”, USC News, University of Southern California, retrieved 10 September 2013.
^ a b c Hilbert, Martin; LĂłpez, Priscila (1 April 2011), ”The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information”, Science, 332 (6025 ): 60-65, Bibcode:2011 Sci … 332 … 60H, doi:10.1126/ science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385.
^ ”Americas events – Video animation on The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010”. The Economist. Archived from the initial on 18 January 2012.
^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 2.
^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, archived from the initial (PDF) on 25 December 2013, recovered 7 August 2012.
^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 3.
^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010 ). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7.
^ Pardede (2009 ), p. 2.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. 4.
^ Weik (2000 ), p. 361.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. xiii.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 5.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 8.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. xxiii.
^ ”Technology Sector Snapshot”. The New York Times. Archived from the initial on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ ”Our programmes, projects and partnerships”. TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ ”Cyberstates 2016”. CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ ”Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT”. TechNewsWorld. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
^ Proctor, K. Scott (2011 ), Optimizing and Assessing Information Technology: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3.
^ ”Top Information Services business”. VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ ”Follow Information Services on Index.co”. Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Publishing, Value Line. ”Industry Overview: Information Services”. Value Line. Archived from the original on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). ”U.S. Careers in the growing field of infotech services”. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008 ), ”Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics”, in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5.
^ Reynolds, George (2009 ), Ethics in Infotech, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9.
^ Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J., Delivering large-scale IT tasks on time, on budget plan, and on worth, released 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023
Bibliography

Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010 ), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1
Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004 ), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8
Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011 ), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1
Lavington, Simon (1980 ), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8
Lavington, Simon (1998 ), A History of Manchester Computers (second ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5
Pardede, Eric (2009 ), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1
Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000 ), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011 ), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6
Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006 ), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8
Weik, Martin (2000 ), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, vol. 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0
Wright, Michael T. (2012 ), ”The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism”, in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279-292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further reading

Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994 ), Infotech and the Corporation of the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
– Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011 ). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information Technology: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280.
Gleick, James (2011 ). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York City: Pantheon Books.
Price, Wilson T. (1981 ), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2.
– Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999 ). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
– Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986 ). Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.