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Expert System Industry In China
The synthetic intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the country’s primary productive force.
The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and encountered substantial challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China lagged most Western nations in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had received greater education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has steadily established a nationwide agenda for expert system development and became one of the leading countries in expert system research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of ”nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business must lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s fast AI development has significantly impacted Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the leading industries that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.
The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are couple of present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research and advancement of artificial intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research study and development did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying federal government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s national technology strategy. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further expanded its research and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research projects has actually drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the advancement of synthetic intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State . [2] In the exact same year, expert system was also discussed in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event accompanied the Chinese federal government’s statement of the ”Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China issued ”A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic technology that has become a ”focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The document advised substantial financial investment in a variety of tactical areas associated with AI and required close cooperation between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the ”transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an essential part to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The same year experienced the development of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique include the capacity of expert system for commercial transformation, much better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the development of big language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ’Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the policies worrying deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, including specifications for data collection and design training was released in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI security risks, consisting of abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative artificial intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new ”AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]
Since 2024, numerous Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of significant AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government objectives
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI technology will be crucial to the future of global military and economic power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its place as a worldwide leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become ”the primary driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have established a ”mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government ”seeks to blend state planning and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, producing asymmetric advantages as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a top research top priority and ranks AI first among ”frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector often supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI funding mainly focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government financing likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study revealed that, while China is enormously purchasing all aspects of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]
According to national assistance on developing China’s state-of-the-art commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local commercial advancement and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]
Interdisciplinary collaborations play a vital role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private collaborations, and global cooperations and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101
According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and enforcing responsibilities on AI business, the overall technique to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s big population produces an enormous quantity of accessible information for business and scientists, which offers a crucial benefit in the race of big data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest variety of web users, generating substantial amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial acknowledgment
Facial acknowledgment is one of the most extensively utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large amounts of information from its residents assists additional train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not only conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D but also provides remarkable economic prospective drawing in both global and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme advancement of the information and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft steps specifying that tech companies will be obligated to guarantee AI-generated content promotes the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content might not ”incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language model to the public, companies should look for approval from the CAC to certify that the design declines to respond to specific questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]
In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries consisting of training information sets commonly utilized for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional companies with training data that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to questions associating with features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic impact
Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, standard industries in China have actually fought with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, operational costs are expected to minimize while an increase in efficiency generates earnings development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to overcome adoption barriers including expenses and absence of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI advancement due to the fact that of increasing demands for laborers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is concentrated in coastal regions rather than inland. [61]
A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98
Military impact
China seeks to develop a ”first-rate” military by ”intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on the use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating different kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released afterwards showed a computer simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and ruining a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a broadening ”generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China intends to utilize AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, creating a typical operating photo, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]
Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice support, software application, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]
China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few borders exist between Chinese industrial business, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI development concerns and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data labeling to create the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, potentially giving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual property. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign investments, ”particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, consisting of ”microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its model use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically because China deals with obstacles in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over ten years, while roughly the same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research study products. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China specifically want to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently developed the first kids’s instructional program in military AI in the world. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ’the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for essential requirements in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide governments have developed legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to address brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to categorize their information into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and manage information transfers to other parties. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that ”increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]
Leading business
Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has actually looked for to motivate private tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as ”AI champs”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new ”AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to global AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s ”rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that ”Chinese government authorities demonstrated remarkably eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that ”the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI developments in China” and ”funding, focus, and a willingness among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary modification.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: ”China may have unequaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be wise for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]
The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the threats that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause higher oppression of workers and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao cites how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in fewer economic actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the primary accountable star in the area of generative AI (producing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI threats intensifying military competition in between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover results. [28]:91
Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have actually taken place. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is usually positive concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI outweigh the threats, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university students found that 80% concurred or strongly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% thought it should be managed by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The commonly used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang area to discover Uyghurs is ”the first recognized example of a government intentionally utilizing synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be ”among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, specifically by local community police departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of artificial intelligence
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.