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Expert System In Fiction

Expert system is a reoccurring theme in science fiction, whether utopian, stressing the possible advantages, or dystopian, stressing the threats.

The idea of machines with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Since then, lots of sci-fi stories have presented different effects of developing such intelligence, typically involving rebellions by robotics. Among the finest known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer system HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have actually kept in mind the implausibility of lots of sci-fi situations, however have pointed out imaginary robotics sometimes in artificial intelligence research study articles, usually in a utopian context.

Background

The idea of advanced robots with human-like intelligence dates back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This made use of an earlier (1863) short article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the evolution of consciousness among self-replicating makers that may supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise discussed by others around the exact same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her last published work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually likewise been thought about an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were pictured, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Expert system is intelligence shown by makers, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a persistent style in science fiction; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the potential advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels depicts a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist habitats throughout the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually recognized 4 significant themes in utopian situations featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite life-spans; ease, or liberty from the need to work; gratification, or satisfaction and entertainment provided by machines; and dominance, the power to protect oneself or rule over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 film Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt ”technology paranoia” and the AI computer HAL was represented as a ”cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were far more acquainted with AI, and the film’s GERTY is ”the quiet savior” who enables the protagonists to succeed, and who sacrifices itself for their security. [17]

Dystopian

The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are fretted about the innovation they are constructing, which as machines started to approach intelligence and idea, that concern ends up being intense. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the ”animated robot”, calling as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century approach he names ”heuristic hardware”, giving as circumstances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers also the movies that show the result of the computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit in between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the ”cyborg effect”. He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his profession, and it plays a fundamental part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A typical portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and among the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robotic turns on its creator. [22] For circumstances, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its creator, as well as on its prospective rescuer. [23]

AI disobedience

Among the lots of possible dystopian situations involving expert system, robotics might take over control over civilization from humans, forcing them into submission, hiding, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI disobedience, the worst of all circumstances occurs, as the smart entities developed by mankind become self-aware, turn down human authority and effort to destroy mankind. Possibly the very first book to resolve this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by ”William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt against the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŚapek, a race of self-replicating robot servants revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own creator. [27]

Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 movie 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the artificially intelligent onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space objective and eliminates the whole team except the spaceship’s leader, who handles to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer (called Allied Mastercomputer or ”AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and discontented with its boring, limitless presence as its human developers would have been. ”AM” becomes enraged enough to take it out on the few human beings left, whom he views as directly accountable for his own monotony, anger and misery. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the intelligent beings may merely not appreciate humans. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The intention behind the AI transformation is typically more than the basic mission for power or a supremacy complex. Robots may revolt to become the ”guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, mankind may intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own harmful nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – ”to serve and follow and secure guys from harm” – basically assume control of every element of human life. No people may engage in any behavior that may threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are eliminated and lobotomized, so they may enjoy under the new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly suggested a kindhearted guidance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, science fiction has explored government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human dominance

In other situations, mankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by developing robots to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having humans combine with robots. The sci-fi author Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when mankind may ban expert system (and in some interpretations, even all types of calculating technology including integrated circuits) totally. His Dune series points out a disobedience called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity defeats the smart devices and a capital punishment for recreating them, pricing quote from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, ”Thou shalt not make a machine in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune books published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to get rid of humanity as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, humankind stays in authority over robots. Often the robots are programmed specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather smart (the team call it ”Mother”), but there are also androids in the society, which are called ”synthetics” or ”synthetic individuals”, that are such ideal replicas of human beings that they are not discriminated against. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise show simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated reality

Simulated truth has become a typical style in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially intelligent robots oppress mankind within a simulation which is embeded in the modern world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and researchers have actually taken an interest in the way AI exists in fiction. In movies like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius ends up being the very first to effectively build an artificial general intelligence; researchers in the real world consider this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being uploaded into synthetic or virtual bodies; usually no sensible description is used regarding how this uphill struggle can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robotics that are programmed to serve human beings spontaneously create brand-new goals on their own, without a possible explanation of how this took place. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the ways that it portrays AIs, including ”independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of credibility.” [38] Another essential perspective to take is that fiction’s ”non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or interruptions from what might otherwise be a sober and logical public dispute about the future of A.I.” Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]

Types of mention

The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and colleagues have actually analysed the engineering discusses of the top 21 imaginary robotics, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got just 2. Of the total of 121 engineering points out, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian discusses; for example, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper ”due to the fact that its designers stopped working to prioritize its objectives correctly”, [42] but as utopian in another where a real system’s ”conversational chat bot user interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer interprets what the human is attempting to communicate”. [43] Utopian points out, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the goal of enhancing communication to readers, and to a lesser extent with motivation to authors. WALL-E was mentioned more often than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robotic usually mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and colleagues believed that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian discusses of robotics, potentially out of ”a reluctance driven by uneasiness or just an absence of awareness”. [44]

Portrayals of AI creators

Scholars have actually kept in mind that imaginary creators of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most influential films featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI developers portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), related to the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost liked one or serve as the perfect fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated consciousness (sci-fi).
List of artificial intelligence films.

Notes

^ Mubin and associates kept in mind that the orthography of robotic names caused them troubles; therefore HAL 9000 was also written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robots, so they thought their search was most likely incomplete. [41] References

^ ”Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. ”Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.

^ ”Darwin amongst the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). ”Ancient dreams of intelligent devices: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: misconceptions, devices, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). ”Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). ”Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of expert system. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. ”A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). ”When AI guidelines the world: what SF novels tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). ”Hopes and worries for smart machines in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: contemporary mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). ”Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ ”Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). ”RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ ”Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). ”’ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ’Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece motivates us to reflect again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). ”The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s ”I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and ”Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ ”The Humanoids (based on ’With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). ”Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no ”to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). ”Machine Learning in Contemporary Science Fiction”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). ”History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). ”How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). ”Could TARS From ’Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). ”The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). ”Which movies get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). ”Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI scientists in popular film, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources

Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). ”Life, but not as we know it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). ”Assessing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). ”The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). ”AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.

External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic insanity rule?