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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and technology as the country’s primary efficient force.
The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and encountered significant difficulties due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind many Western nations in terms of AI advancement. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten higher education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has steadily established a national agenda for expert system development and emerged as among the leading nations in expert system research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of ”nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business needs to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI advancement has actually considerably affected Chinese society in numerous locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and production are the leading industries that would be the most impacted by more AI release.
The private sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in many elements as there are few present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to restrict China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese government’s censorship program on the advancement of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research study and advancement of synthetic intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Expert system research study and advancement did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying federal government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study tasks has dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy top priority for the advancement of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was also mentioned in the l lth five-year plan. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was held in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the ”Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant turning point in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China issued ”A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a strategic innovation that has ended up being a ”focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document advised significant financial investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and private sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the ”transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an important element to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year saw the development of numerous application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council mentioned the need for enormous talent acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, as well as public and private financial investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the potential of expert system for commercial change, much better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the emergence of big language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ’Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the policies concerning deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for information collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI safety risks, consisting of abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors developed with generative synthetic intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new ”AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]
Since 2024, many Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of major AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be vital to the future of international military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its place as an international leader in AI research. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being ”the primary driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the advancement of expert system theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have developed a ”fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government ”seeks to combine state planning and control while some operational flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, developing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a leading research study priority and ranks AI initially amongst ”frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI funding generally focused on innovative and applied research. [38] The government funding also supported multiple AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research revealed that, while China is massively purchasing all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]
According to national assistance on establishing China’s high-tech commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and regional industrial development and environment. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, heavily focuses on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]
Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and worldwide partnerships and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing obligations on AI business, the general approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population produces an enormous quantity of accessible information for companies and scientists, which uses an essential advantage in the race of big data. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest variety of internet users, generating huge quantities of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial recognition
Facial acknowledgment is among the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large amounts of information from its locals helps additional train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D but also offers incredible economic potential drawing in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the information and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures mentioning that tech companies will be obliged to ensure AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal duty for training information and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not ”incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language design to the general public, business should look for approval from the CAC to certify that the design refuses to respond to particular questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]
In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries consisting of training information sets commonly utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local business with training data that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to answer concerns relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic impact
Most agencies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-lasting financial growth. In the past, traditional markets in China have actually struggled with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, operational costs are anticipated to reduce while an increase in efficiency produces earnings development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of expenses and absence of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development due to the fact that of increasing needs for laborers with sophisticated skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in seaside regions rather than inland. [61]
A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98
Military effect
China seeks to build a ”first-rate” armed force by ”intelligentization” with a particular focus on the usage of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is looking into different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report released afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense development and fears of an expanding ”generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China intends to use AI for exploiting large troves of intelligence, generating a common operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]
Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, decision assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]
China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist in between Chinese commercial companies, university research laboratories, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct means of assisting AI development top priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information labeling to create the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the prospective to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, possibly giving it legal access to U.S. technology and intellectual property. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign investments, ”particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, consisting of ”microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design use restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially since China deals with obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been working in the field for over ten years, while roughly the exact same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly wish to address military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently developed the first kids’s academic program in military AI in the world. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical issues
For the previous years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ’the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular focus on user defense, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles calling for vital requirements in long-term research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous nationwide governments have actually developed legislation resolving information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure categorizing all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are required to categorize their information into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other celebrations. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the evidence presented and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology companies may erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that ”increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]
Leading business
Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]
China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has looked for to motivate personal tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as ”AI champs”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s new ”AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological dominance – China missed both industrial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take advantage of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s ”rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
An article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that ”Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that ”the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China” and ”financing, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive needed change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: ”China may have unrivaled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research study culture. Instead of stress over China’s development, it would be sensible for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]
The Chinese government’s censorship program has actually stunted the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of workers and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in higher capital build-up and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary accountable star in the location of generative AI (developing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI dangers escalating military competitors between countries and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover effects. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential danger from artificial intelligence have occurred. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is usually positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study performed throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI outweigh the risks, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student found that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% thought it must be regulated by the government. [93]
Human rights
The commonly utilized AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is ”the very first known example of a federal government deliberately utilizing artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be ”one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, particularly by regional municipal cops departments. [97] [98]
Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of artificial intelligence business
Regulation of expert system
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.